Revolutions
The English, American, French, Haitian and 1848 revolutions: causes, turning points and aftermaths.
England's Revolutions: From Civil War to the Bill of Rights
How quarrels over money, religion, and royal power took England from Personal Rule and civil war to regicide, restoration, and the 1689 Bill of Rights.
Read · 10 min read →RevolutionsThe American Revolution: Ideas, War, and the Founding Documents
From Lexington and Concord to the Bill of Rights: how arguments, alliances, and close votes produced the Declaration, a war won with France, and the Constitution.
Read · 8 min read →RevolutionsThe French Revolution, 1789–1799: Phases and Turning Points
A phase-by-phase guide to the French Revolution, from the debt crisis and the Bastille to the Terror, the Directory, and Bonaparte's coup, with the debates still open.
Read · 9 min read →RevolutionsThe Haitian Revolution: How Saint-Domingue Became Haiti
How enslaved people in France's richest colony rose in 1791, forced the abolition of slavery, defeated Napoleon's reconquest, and founded Haiti in 1804.
Read · 8 min read →RevolutionsThe Revolutions of 1848: Europe's Spring and the Reaction
How hunger and reform demands toppled governments from Paris to Vienna in 1848, why the old powers won back control by 1849, and what lasting changes survived.
Read · 9 min read →RevolutionsThe Russian Revolutions of 1917: February, October, and After
An evidence-first account of Russia's two revolutions of 1917, the Constituent Assembly, Brest-Litovsk, and civil war, and the long debate over revolution or coup.
Read · 9 min read →